NOTES ON OUR
HERITAGE AND THE EUCHARIST
Rev.
Jeric C. Cortado, March 2007
This paper articulates the history and liturgical development of the Eucharist:
how it emerged and developed during the time of the early Christians, its
survival during the persecution period, how it was lived out by our
fore-parents during the time of the Reformation, and how it was celebrated
during the Constantinian period and its transition. This paper also looks at how the Methodist
society from England to America, and from America to the Philippines regarded
the Eucharist. Lastly, this paper tries
to draw out the political image and implications of the Eucharist in the
narration of history of the Christian and Methodist movements.
THE EUCHARIST IN THE EARLY CHRISTIAN MOVEMENT
The early
Christians inherited the monotheistic exclusivity of worship, demanding for a
renunciation of the worship of other gods from the Jewish tradition. Christian Jews, at least for the first few
decades of the Christian movement, appear to have continued their participation
in synagogues, in temple-based religious activities and events in Jerusalem.
Paul, the apostle to the Gentile, continued determinedly his Jewish religious
associations, most markedly demonstrated in his repeated willingness to undergo
synagogue floggings, which were dispensed as punishment for unspecified
violations of Jewish religiousness as judged by synagogue authorities (2
Cor.11:24). The exclusivity of Christian worship did not extend to a refusal to
participate in Jewish worship. The obvious reason is that the God of the
earliest Christians was understood to be the God of the Old Testament and
Israel, the God worshipped in the synagogue and Jerusalem temple.[1] The early Christians led by the Apostles had
no sacred places, no shrines, no imposing temple structures, no impressive
processions and sacrificial rites, unlike the Roman-era religion. Christian gatherings then, including the
celebration of the Eucharist, would have seemed to be an unimpressive affair.
Larry W.
Hurtado summarized the features that the first century Christians offered and
contributed in the history of the Church, namely, intimacy[2],
participation[3],
fervour[4],
significance[5],
and potency[6].
The physical setting in the earliest Christian worship was the home. And since
the common meal was the central component of first-century worship, the setting
of worship was in the dining area of the home that accommodated more than nine.
The size of the house-church group and the characteristic central place of a
shared meal in the worship practice contributed social intimacy and strong solidarity among the participants. Christians referred to one another as
brothers and sisters, children of the same God-Parent, and members of the one
body (1st Corinthians 12:27). The intimacy of fellowship was in
principle to be extended to all members, regardless of their individual social
status, economic standing, and gender. As what Apostle Paul stressed to the
Christian movement of Galatia (in Galatians 3:28), “there is no difference
between Jews and Gentiles, between slaves and free people, between men and
women; you are all one in union with Christ Jesus.” The early Christian movement paved the
opportunities for women to have visible responsibility and respect as
acknowledged leaders, including open participation
in public liturgical life. The
participation in the corporate worship by those in lower social and economic
status including the slaves are widely manifested and spread in the early
Christian movement.
Religious fervour has been an impressive character
and feature of the Christian movement during the first century. Their gathering and Eucharistic celebrations
is a scene in which jubilation and fervour were collectively expressed and
deepened their mutual encouragement. Although their setting in worship was so
simple, a house-church, each of them were encouraged which gave a profound
significance to their gatherings. And this kind of gathering of members of the
Christian movement, the “ekklesia,” was born. In the Greek usage, “ekklesia”
designated the gathering of citizens of a city to conduct civic business. “The
other important use of “ekklesia’ outside the New Testament is the Greek Old
Testament (the Bible of most early Christians, whether Jews or Gentiles) where
it is regularly used to refer to Israel as the ‘congregation’ of the Lord
(“ekklesia Kyriou”, e.g., Deut, 23:2, I Chronicles 28:8, is most often
translated from the Hebrew term “qahal”). In the Old Testament usage,
“ekklesia” designates Israel as summoned by God to assemble for some act of
obedience.”[7] The meal fellowship of the early Christian
movement is an event where Christ is present in power for good toward those
believers who are aligned with his purposes and for potential judgment towards
whose who do not recognize that the gathered “ekklesia” is the body of Christ,
our Lord.
The early
Christians celebrated a full common meal with prayers of blessings patterned
after the Jewish table blessings and prayed before and after the meal. William
H. Willimon presented the seven-action pattern that is rooted in the sacred
meal of the Jewish faithful in Judaism: taking bread, thanking God, breaking
bread, giving the bread, taking the wine after the meal, thanking God, and
giving the wine. The fellowship meal in 1st Corinthians 11 is a
concrete example of the full meal by the early Christians. But as the church
moved into the third century, the seven-action pattern of the full common meal
was compressed into a four-action pattern of (1) taking bread and wine, (2)
thanking God over the bread and wine, (3) breaking the bread, and (4) giving
the bread and wine. The Lord’s Supper was separated from the full meal. Perhaps the reason was the increasing number
of the Christians that large groups became impractical for domestic
table-gatherings at a private home, and the abuse crept into the celebration,
against which Paul spoke and strongly condemned in 1st Corinthians
11:17-34. It was in the opening of the
second century when the sacred meal of the early Christians was generally
called “Eucharist” or “Thanksgiving.”
The first
century Christian worship derived from the blended Synagogue Worship and Upper
Room experience. We inherited in the synagogue worship the following:
- Scripture
lections (1 Tim. 4:13; I Thess. 5:27; Col. 4:16)
- Psalms
and Hymns (I Cor. 14:26; Eph. 5:19; Col. 3: 16)
- Common
Prayers (Acts 2:42; 1 Tim. 2:1-2)
- People’s
Amen (1 Cor. 14: 16)
- A
sermon or exposition (I Cor. 14:26; Acts 20:7)
- A
Confession of Faith, not necessarily the formal recitation of creed (I
Cor. 15:1-4; I Tim. 6:12)
- Alms
giving (1 Cor. 16:1-2; 2 Cor. 9:10-13; Rom. 15:26)
We
inherited the experience in the Upper Room:
- The
Lord’s Supper (I Cor. 15:16, 11:23; Matt. 24:26-28); Mark 24:22-24; Luke
22: 19-20)
- The
Prayer of Consecration would include thanksgiving (Luke 22:19; I Cor.
11:23, 14:16; I Tim. 2:1)
- Remembrance
of the Lord’s death and resurrection (Acts 2:42; Luke 22:19; I Cor.
11:23,25,26)
- Intercession
(John 17)
- The
recitations of the Lord’s Prayer (Matt. 6:9-13; Luke 11:2-4).
- Singing
in this part of the service, and the Kiss of Peace (Rom. 16:16; I Cor.
16:20; I Thess. 5:26; I Pet. 5:14)
- Men
and women were separated as in the synagogues; the men were bareheaded and
the women veiled ( I Cor. 11:6-7)
- Standing
in prayer (Phil. 1:27; Eph.6:14; I Tim.2:8)
Christian
Worship is a union of the worship of the synagogue and the sacramental
experience of the Upper Room that dates from the New Testament times.
THE
EUCHARIST DURING THE ERA OF PERSECUTION
The first persecution
of Christians took place in Palestine, particularly, in Jerusalem instigated by
the Jewish authorities and puppet to the Roman Imperial power, which has much
to do with these persecutions.
Christians were persecuted from the time of emperor Nero to the time
of emperor Diocletian, roughly from the
year 60 C.E. to 305 C.E. In between
those years, Christians were forced to lead a quiet and clandestine life. They
celebrated the Holy Eucharist secretly, they gathered in the catacombs. They
were victims at the same of malicious rumors accusing them of offering human
sacrifices, and being cannibals, contributing to a very low regard of the
Christian movement on the part of the pagan community. It was considered as the dark era of the
early Christian movement, but gave birth to the golden age of liturgical
development.
The Didache
(100 C.E.), the earliest liturgical document apart from the New
Testament literature, was formed during this persecution era. This document is closely related to the
Kiddush, a combined Eucharistic and agape meal, in which the blessings of the
bread and the cup are not only separate, but the cup is blessed before the
bread. This document was also known as “The Teaching of the Lord Through the
Twelve Apostles” that served as manual for missionary work in the rural
communities of Palestine and Syria. The Didache gives explicit instructions to
the Christians, “On the Lord’s day meet and break and offer the Eucharist,
after having first confessed your offenses, so that your sacrifice may be
pure.”[8] The Didache documents fixed the Sunday, the
Lord’s Day to be a day for the celebration of the Eucharist.
The Apologia,
probably written in 150 C.E., “describes worship in the church at Rome as a
gathering on Sunday, led by a ‘president’ (as yet there seems to be no status
distinction between cleros and laos), which begins with reading from the
apostles or the writings of the prophets ‘as long as time permits’ followed by
a sermon by the president ‘urgently admonishing his hearers to practice these
beautiful teachings in their lives.’ ‘Then all stand up together and recite
prayers.’ Then bread and wine mixed with water are brought, the president
offers prayers of thanksgiving ‘as much as in him lies,’ and the people respond
with, ‘Amen.’ The Eucharist is then eaten, and leftovers are gathered by the
deacons to take to orphans, widows, and others who are not present.”[9] The Apologia was written by Saint Justin
(100-165 C.E.), who became the first Christian apologist. He wrote two
Apologies, the first one (148 C.E.) where he addressed emperor Antoninus Pius
presenting that there is nothing immoral and criminal in the Christian
gathering and Eucharistic celebrations that the enemies of the Christian
movement claimed. The other one (161) is probably an appendix to the first,
addressed the Roman Senate. Eventually his enemies, the Roman Imperial power,
arrested him and beheaded for his faith. At the middle of the second century,
the liturgy written by Saint Justin in his Apologia was reconstructed.
In the liturgy
of Justin Martyr, we can see the balance of the sacramental and Scriptural
elements. The Word and Table are integral parts of the liturgy and worship.
This liturgy was developed at the time when Christians suffered persecution,
the Liturgy in the Upper Room and the Prayer of Consecration was kept in secret
because they were suspected as cannibal. This secrecy was in high after the
death of Justin Martyr and until the death of Constantine, which was also
called as the “disciplina arcani”. By the third century, the Sunday worship
shape emerged and the actual wording of the Eucharistic prayer, the heart of
the Eucharist was written. This was written and developed by Saint Hippolytus
in the year 215 C.E. in the context of the ordination of the bishop. The
distinguishing characteristic of the Hippolytan Eucharistic prayer is its
brevity and simplicity. “First, an Introductory Dialogue (Sursum corda- “Lift
up your hearts”) was spoken probably (derived from the synagogue practices)
between the bishop and the people:
Bishop: The Lord be with you.
People: And with your Spirit.
Bishop: Lift up your hearts.
People: We have them with the Lord.
Bishop: Let us give thanks
(eucharistia) to the Lord.
People: It is right and proper.”[10]
Then the
bishop recites the Eucharistic prayer or the Thanksgiving prayer, “We give you thanks, O God through your
beloved Son Jesus Christ, whom in these last days you have sent us as Saviour
and redeemer and as the angel of your will; he that is your inseparable Word,
through whom you made all things, and who is well-pleasing to you; whom you
sent from heaven into the womb of a Virgin, and who dwelling within her, was
made flesh and was manifested as your Son, born of the Holy Spirit and of the
Virgin; who fulfilling your will and winning for himself a holy people,
extended his hands when it was time for him to suffer, so that by his suffering
he might set free those who believe in you…”[11]
The content of the Eucharistic
prayer directly summarizes the core of the apostolic teaching and preaching.
Then the
bishop continues to recite the narration of institution emphasizing the passion
and suffering of Christ, “When he was
betrayed to his voluntary suffering, in order that he might destroy death and
break the bonds of the devil and trample hell underfoot and enlighten the just
and set a boundary and show forth his resurrection, took bread and gave thanks
to you, saying: Take, eat: this is my body, which is broken for you.” Likewise
with the cup too, saying: “This is my blood, which is poured out for you.
Whenever you do this, you do it in my memory.””[12]
This Hippolytan narration of institution stressed one of the joyful triumphs at
the victory of Christ in the war of human liberation. This Eucharistic prayer is
“an eschatological prayer, a future-oriented prayer which sings a new age in
which the whole cosmos is redeemed and all things are being made new.”[13] Following the words of institution is the
so-called anamnesis or remembrance,
“Remembering, therefore, his death and resurrection, we offer to you the bread
and the cup, giving thanks to you, because of your having accounted us worthy
to stand before you and minister to you.”[14] Anamnesis or remembrance here is not
something that is remembered from the past, but a “re-presentation” or
“re-calling” of some past event, making it present. It is understood as
proclamation, participation rather than mere historical recollection.
According to
William H. Willimon, a professor of Christian Ministry, “remembering does not
mean mere historical recollection. It more nearly means to wake up, to open
your eyes, to call to mind, to renew or re-awaken. Remember who you are.”[15]
Then follows the Epiclesis or
Invocation, asking for a divine response to the church offering in the
preceding anamnesis. Asking for the invocation of the Holy Spirit upon the
offering and the people gathered together.
“And we pray that your Holy Spirit upon the offering of the holy Church.
Gather as one in the fullness of the Holy Spirit your saints who participate;
and confirm their faith in truth.” [16]
Then the prayer of thanksgiving ends with the concluding doxology, reinforcing
the Eucharistic nature of this prayer as a hymn of praise in response to human
liberation in Christ. “So that we may
praise and glorify you through your Son Jesus Christ, through whom be glory and
honour to you, to the Father and the Son with the Holy Spirit, in your holy
Church, both now and through the ages of ages. Amen.”[17]
The recitation of “Amen” by all signifies the people’s affirmation and
commitment to the mission and ministry of the Christian movement. The faithful
then move forward toward the table and receive the Eucharistic bread and wine.
After the meal, the leftovers were gathered by the deacons to be distributed to
the poor. Then the people depart into the world wrapped by chronic exploitation
and greediness. During this period, many Christians were victims of
religio-political repression and killings by the empire. But persecutions and
repressions brought the Christians to journey together.
THE
EUCHARIST DURING THE CONSTANTINIAN ERA
The
persecution against Christians ended in 313 C.E. when Emperor Constantine
promulgated the Edict of Tolerance and Freedom, and made “peace” with the
Christians. Christian worship, gathering and celebrations could be now
practiced freely and openly. Christianity flourished and became respectable
under the benevolent eyes of the Roman Empire. Towards the end of the fourth
century, Christianity became the official and only legitimate religion of the
Roman Empire. This was the time that the Christian movement, the people’s
movement, was institutionalized and totally captured by the Empire. The empire
promoted Christianity as the new state religion, erecting magnificent buildings
for worship in Rome, Constantinople, and Jerusalem. Christian worship and
Eucharistic celebration was no longer in the catacombs and in house churches
but in grandiose basilicas of the Roman Empire. The Eucharist was continued as
the central act of Sunday worship, wherein Constantine imposed that Sunday is a
day for rest in 321 C.E.
Large
buildings modeled on the public buildings of the Roman Empire were built to
accommodate Christian Worship. Some temples of the Greek religion were
rededicated to Christian worship. In these new settings, Christian worship was
developed into impressive ceremonies and rituals. Impressive entrance ceremonies prior to the
reading and preaching of scripture developed. We can notice here the transition
of worship under the influence of an imperialist order. Worship increasingly
followed fixed text and increased the risk of freedom of worship. A standard and pattern of Worship was
developed and if you did not follow it, you were cursed and tagged as heretic.
Participation of the people in worship was reduced and the effectiveness of
nurturing faith was alienated. The Eucharistic celebration was centered on the
sacrificial suffering and death of Christ rather than on the victorious
experience of Christ. The crucifix with the image of the suffering Christ
attached to the cross became the major symbol in worship. The Eucharist itself
was called Mass and came to understood primarily as sacrifice. Priests were
permitted to drink from the cup and laypersons could receive only the bread,
which had become a wafer rather than real bread.
Christianity
from the start was a dynamic movement of human liberation from selfishness and
exploitation. The Holy Eucharist was a corporate public worship of the whole
community of believers. It was a Christian gathering openly related to the
issues they experienced. “There was an
intimate bond between the people and the celebrant. The altar was not distant,
as in the big basilicas. There was on going dialogue between the participants.
All understood the text read and prayers recited…..The prayer was not
individualistic, but communitarian.”[18]
But after the institutionalization of the Church and became a Roman Empire
religion, Christian worship had been transformed from communal Eucharistic act
into a solemn priestly sacrifice and less congregational participation. The
Eucharist celebrated at the high altar of the grand Roman basilicas was taken
to the corners of the earth by the priests in combination with colonial rulers.
Over the
centuries, the Eucharist was exploited and used as means of enslavement and
domestication of believers, and adjusted to suit the needs of the elite in the
churches. It tended to be a mechanical
ceremony under the control of the priests without much impact on the
relationships of persons. The institutionalization of the Christian movement
which made Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire is a great
tragedy of the Christendom. According to Tissa Balasuriya, “the tragedy of the subordination of Christianity to European power
politics was also the tragedy of the Eucharist. As the priest and monks went
hand in hand with the colonialists, the Eucharist was desecrated in the service
of empire,”[19]
and even used to contribute mental subjugation of the people.
THE
EUCHARIST DURING THE REFORMATION ERA
During the
Reformation Era, the issues on sale of indulgences traversed into the realm of
worship and liturgy. Questions on the revision of the Mass and its
particularities were brought out. Martin Luther and his followers raised a question
about why the Mass and the Bible could not be made available in the language of
the people. They wanted the passages in the Bible to be read in the hearing of
the people, and the Word of God must be proclaimed in the worship. They
questioned the prayers of the Church for the dead and to the saints, especially
to Mary, and considered this as a corruption of worship. They demanded for more
congregational participation in worship, in prayers and in singing. And finally
they objected to the doctrine that each
Mass the bread and wine became the very body and blood of Jesus Christ—and the
sacrifice for man’s redemption was again re-enacted.[20]
For them, there is no scriptural basis or support for this.
Martin Luther
removed what he believed unnecessary elaborations and returned to the early
Christian movement practice. He wrote the first revision called Deutsche
Messe (The German Mass) which was printed in 1526. This was an
alteration from the Latin Mass and was first used in Wittenberg. In the
pre-communion portion the same elements were retained together with lights,
vestments, and incense. He did suggest a metrical hymn instead of the introit
and in place of the gradual between the Epistle and the Gospel. And he brought
back the sermon. The ritual related to the Lord’s Supper and was more
drastically changed, particularly the Prayer of Consecration, which retained
intact only the words of institution. He returned to the ancient practice of
administering the communion in both kinds, that is offering both bread and wine
to the communicants.
“He
first suggested that communion be received daily, but three years later took
the position that the Eucharist should be celebrated every Sunday. He… modified the doctrine of
transubstantiation… that the elements of bread and wine were transformed into
the very body and blood of Christ in the Act of Consecration.”[21] Martin Luther put the words of Jesus, “This
is my body”, believing that in the fellowship communion the sacrifice of his
life was there. And in participating of that celebration we also sacrifice
ourselves together with Christ. Martin Luther pointed out the sacrificial
elements in the Holy Eucharist (in the Lord’s Supper) and not simply a
re-enactment. In the Eucharistic
Celebration, a sacrificial fellowship and act of true communion, Christ is
there, Christ is present. We receive him by our faith and the fullness of his
spirit and presence is truly experienced by the people who actively
participate.
If Martin
Luther regarded the Holy Eucharist as a sacrifice, Zwingli in Northern
Switzerland, Zurich, stressed it as a service of fellowship and a memorial. He did not regard the Holy Eucharist as a
means of grace and discouraged frequent celebration of it. He substituted the
four prayers in Latin:
1.
A prayer of thanksgiving concluding
with the Lord’s Prayer.
2.
A prayer of affirmation, a kind of
confession of faith, ending with petitions to increase faith and fellowship.
3.
A prayer that the faithful may be fed
the true bread of Heaven,
4.
And a new prayer of humble access,
affirming that when the believer cries “Lamb of God, have mercy,” God truly
forgives sins.
Zwingli
suggested that the institution of the elements is done simply by repeating what
St. Paul stated in 1 Corinthians 11:23-26 the words Jesus added “come unto me”.
The Holy Eucharist for him is an act of commemoration of Jesus death, the
meaning of Jesus’ death in the fellowship of the believers. John Calvin, known
among the reformers in Geneva, restored the primitive simplicity and true
proportions of the Eucharist. He regarded the Holy Eucharist as the central
weekly service and as an act of celebration and communion. He used the ritual
translated into French. He wrote the “Form of Prayers and Manners of
Ministering the Sacraments According to the Use of the Ancient Church.” He gave
emphasis to the Proclamation of the Word in the service and used the simple
form of the Lord’s Supper by the early church. The suggested Service was
well-phrased, musical and concise, and every aspect of worship should be acted
with respect and where the Word was truly proclaimed, and the Sacraments,
especially the Holy Eucharist, duly administered. These transitions, changes
and developments of Worship and in the Eucharist influenced most the idea of
John and Charles Wesley who spearheaded the early Methodist movement in
England.
THE
EUCHARIST DURING THE METHODIST MOVEMENT OF THE 18TH CENTURY ENGLAND
The Methodist movement in England begun
during the second quarter of the eighteenth century. As we go deeper in our understanding of the
Eucharist and the early Methodist movement, as Richard P. Heitzenrater pointed
out, “we must first sift the soil which
gave it life, look for the seeds from which it sprang, and notice the resources
which sustained and nourished it.”[22] It was during the 6th century when
Christianity was introduced in England through St. Augustine of Canterbury, who
converted the Saxon King Ehtelbert, whose queen, Bartha, was a Christian. Christianity in an agricultural and feudal
context of society under the monarchial and parliament government of England
faced many trials. It was during this time that the Kingdom of England
developed its own national identity and consolidated and expanded its
territory. Amidst these efforts, the
development of the (Roman) Church in England went along this nationalistic
endeavor, was centered in the monarchial power and was strongly
anti-papal. It was Henry VII who took
the first step in separating the English Church from the papal supervision
based in Rome. The English Parliament by their actions called “Act of
Supremacy,” Henry VIII declared to be head of both church and state of
England.
The Roman
Church in England became the English Church of England, the official religion
of the state and an integral part of the political structure. The polity, the
liturgy and even the language was altered to English from Latin. The Church of
England originally inclined doctrinally towards Calvin’s Theology, but in
liturgical practice it was more closely related to Martin Luther’s
perspective. In 1547 the First Book of
Homilies containing the twelve sermons was published. In March 1548, the
English Order for Communion prepared by Crammer was issued which was inserted
in the first Book of Common Prayer in 1549. The Order stressed that communion
should be given in both kinds, that the people should be informed in advance
when mass was to be celebrated, and that they should also be instructed on how
to prepare for communion. In the Book of Common Prayer, Communion (Eucharist),
an essential part of the English rite, was to be celebrated at least every
Sunday and Holy Day. The rite was commonly called then, Masse’. Under the
regime of Elizabeth, the Book of Common Prayer as revised in 1559 became a
common use in England enforced by the law, and another proposed revision of it
happened in 1662 and attempted in 1927-28.
The society of
John Wesley and Charles Wesley in Oxford was not only called Methodist, they
were also called “Sacramentarians”. The Methodist movement in
eighteenth-century England was an evangelical movement that included a revival
of emphasis on the sacraments. John and Charles Wesley recognized that the
power of God was available in the Lord’s Supper and urged their followers to
draw on that power by frequent participation. Many writers have noted Wesley’s
attempt to make even the Lord’s Supper a converting ordinance. Trevor Dearing
wrote, for example, “The Eucharist was,
for Wesley, not only a confirming and sanctifying ordinance, but also a
converting Means of Grace wherein sinners met their Risen Lord and became
assured of their redemption.” It is evident from his Journal that Wesley
believed people were at times converted at communion service. There is also
evidence that it was a common belief among the associates of Wesley that the
sacrament itself had the power to convert.”[23]
In the Journal
of John Wesley, the entry of June 28, 1740, articulates that the Lord’s Supper
or the Holy Eucharist has a converting power, that it is a converting ordinance
of the church. There were four points articulated, “I showed at large, 1. That the Lord’s Supper was ordained by God, to
be a means of conveying to men either preventing,
or justifying, or sanctifying grace, according to their
several necessities. 2. That the persons for whom it was ordained, are all
those who know and feel that they want the grace of God, either to restrain
them from sin, or to show their sins forgiven, or to renew their souls in the
image of God. That inasmuch as we come to his table, not to give him any thing,
but to receive whatsoever he sees best for us, there is no previous preparation
indispensably necessary, but a desire to receive whatsoever he pleases to give.
And, 4. That no fitness is required at the time of communicating, but a sense
of our state, of our utter sinfulness and helplessness; every one who knows he
is fit for hell, being just fit to come to Christ, in this as well as all other
ways of his appointment.”[24]
The prevenient grace in the order of
salvation testifies to the divine
initiative in all action everywhere and at all times. God acts, and human
beings are called upon and motivated to respond. A divine political initiative
in governing the world and the people to respond by fulfilling their political
vocation intertwined with moral vocation. The prevenient grace is God’s act of
caring, establishing a context of grace within which humankind receives its
nature as political image. The justifying
grace as component of the way of salvation declares the acceptance of
humankind of the vocation of imaging God in the governance of the world. By the
creative act of God, human beings are placed into that political relationship.
By justifying grace people receive the gift of divine forgiveness, and are
welcomed to renew the vocation on its original terms. The renewal of life that
comes with God’s justification therefore includes the renewal of political
vocation. It is the beginning of the realization of the political image of God.
What justifying grace reveals to us in the new viewing of the political image
is that the fundamental identity of human beings is given in and through the
image of God only. It is an identity that all human beings share. Justifying grace
reestablishes all of humanity corporately in the political image of God. It is
a gift, not something earned, and not something superseded by membership. The
gracious renewal of the political vocation of all humankind is an essential
aspect of drawing politics into the order of salvation. It is the conjoining of
the political image in discerning the full meaning of God’s justifying work in
Christ.[25] Sanctification
involves the recovery of the political image of God, and not the moral image
only.[26]
John Wesley
described the Lords’ Supper (Holy Eucharist) as “the grand channel whereby the grace of his Spirit was conveyed to the
souls of all the children of God” (“Sermon on the Mount-Discourse Six,” III.I).[27]
John Wesley himself communed on an average of four to five times a week, and
since, opened this sacrament to those who are in need of conversion. He encouraged his followers to participate in
the Holy Eucharist as long as they can, and open this to everyone who liked to
receive. There are records that described John Wesley as serving the Lord’s
Supper in some of their own houses.[28]
The Wesley brothers wrote and published a collection of 166 Hymns of the Lord’s
Supper, which was used for meditations as well as for singing. They wrote about
love, grace, sacrifice, forgiveness, the presence of Christ, mystery, healing,
nourishment, holiness, and pledge of heaven. They know that Holy Communion is a
powerful means through which divine grace is given to God’s people.
Although, John
Wesley is a conservative Anglican clergy in matters of worship and sacraments,
he advocated corporate drama in worship relevant to the people and the times. “Wesley discouraged the use of choirs in
worship. He did not write anthems or encouraged their use. If a song was to
praise God he believed it should be sung by the whole congregation.”[29]
And this temperament of worship was adapted by the American Methodists. The
Wesley brothers combined the revivalistic and open field preaching, the
organization of bands and society for nurture and social work, and the weekly
celebration and administration of the Eucharist.
THE
METHODISTS OF 18TH CENTURY NORTH AMERICA AND THE HOLY EUCHARIST
In North
America, the first Methodist movement was implanted and organized in a colony
of England. They were under the crown of England, nurtured from the European
books and colleges. They were an
agricultural society where huge plantations were being built and the products
and gains of which were exported to the land of the crown. Land hunger possessed the people in America.
They were victims of oppression, subjugation, and exploitation from the hand of
England. The crown of England also supported the establishment of churches in
the colonies. Wesleyan scholars agree
that it was in America where the second rise of Methodism happened. In response to the request of General
Oglethorpe for missionaries to the Thirteen Colonies in the New World
(America), Rev. Fr. John Wesley sailed for and landed in Savannah, Georgia on
February 1736 and stayed for two years, experiencing the ups and downs of
ministry. He left Georgia with the seeds of Methodism that later developed into
societies of which George Whitefield and Jonathan Edwards were the most widely
known in this endeavor at around 1740. George Whitefield who was inspired about
the development of Methodism visited America thirteen times.
The first
generation of English Methodists was people from the marginalized class and
small traders people. They came from Northern Ireland, and some were artisans
and small farmers or peasants. They established a Methodist society starting
from a small group that came together to sing hymns, pray, and hear a
sermon. It was Philip Embury, a
carpenter and a religious refugee from the Palatinate of the Rhine (Germany)
who settled in Limerick, Ireland. He went to America in 1760 and established in
1766 the first Methodist Society (called Wesley Chapel) at Barrack Street (now
Park Place), New York. Robert Strawbridge and his wife, both from Ireland,
immigrated to America and settled in Frederick County, Maryland. He became the
first Methodist preacher in Maryland with his wife who opened their house as a
meeting place of the Second Methodist Society which they organized. John Wesley regarded America as an outpost of
the Methodist movement, and at the English Methodist Conference in 1769 he sent
the first two preachers Richard Boardman and Joseph Pilmoor to formally
organize Methodist societies in America, where from the very start were diversified racially as well as socially
and economically.[30]
Among the
important feature of the early American Methodist movement was their small
group meetings which played a vital role in the development of American
Methodist societies. In many places and in most cases the small groups of
Methodists gathered and met in homes. The “Book
of Worship for Church and Home” directed their gathering and worship
activities which reflected eighteenth century Methodism. One of the innovations
that the Moravians inspired in John Wesley and which became one of the features
in Methodism was the Love Feast. He
first experienced this when he was in Georgia with Moravian missionaries. The
love feast was adapted by American Methodist societies and played an important
part in the history of American Methodist worship. It became popular and became
an alternative during the time that the Methodist movement was deprived of the
opportunity and privilege to receive the Eucharist from Anglican Churches and
when there was a shortage of Methodist clergy to administer the same. Even when the Holy Eucharist became part of
the worship experience of American Methodists, they did not abandon the love
feast, which was used commonly during the closing service of camp meetings and
conferences. It was March 23, 1770, when the Methodist missionaries began
holding the love feast and marked the first celebration held in America
(Philadelphia). The order includes scripture reading, singing, praying, the
sharing of the bread and water and testimonies, and since then were held
quarterly.
With the
arrival of Francis Asbury in America in 1771 who was appointed by John Wesley
as his “assistant” or superintendent of the American Methodist Societies, the
Wesleyan pattern of worship was used by the Methodist societies. Methodists
were urged to participate in the sacramental worship of the Anglican Church,
they received the sacraments of Baptism and Holy Eucharist from the Anglican
clergy. And among the Anglican clergy who was supportive in this matter and
even helped to organize Methodist societies was the Rev. Fr. Devereux
Jarrat. Worship for the Methodist
movement is vital, especially the celebration of the sacraments, the Holy
Eucharist. In the first American
Methodist Conference held in Philadelphia in 1773, questions arose on matters
of the administration of the sacraments. In the belief that sacraments are an
important ordinance to be received and participated in by the people, and in
the importance of receiving it from ordained clergy, problems arise. There were
difficulties in finding clergy who can officiate the sacraments of Baptism and
Eucharist. There were a lot of areas of Methodist societies who had no ordained
clergy, and so they requested John Wesley to address the problems encountered
in the colonies.
There was a
long time of waiting, for it was only in November 3, 1784, that the American
Methodists were rewarded by the arrival of Thomas Coke, a Doctor of Civil Law
and a Presbyter in the Church of England.
He was commissioned as John Wesley’s assistant or superintendent of the
Methodist Societies in America and to ordain with Rev. Francis Asbury as
co-superintendent. Richard Whatcoat, and
Thomas Vasey also arrive in New York with their certificate of ordination
signed by John Wesley. And during the Christmas Conference held at Lovely Lane
Chapel in Baltimore, Maryland in December 27 (24), 1784 and ended in January 2,
1785, attended by 60 preachers, Thomas Coke and Francis Asbury were elected
bishops or general superintendents in the newly constituted Church. In the last
day of the conference they decided to establish the Methodist Episcopal Church
in America. The conference also acted
that the sacramental worship be lived out, that worship was not to be separated
from the total life of the church. The Methodist societies were able to receive
the Eucharist quarterly when the ordained minister came to the community. Participation in the Holy Eucharist was part
of the lifestyle of the Methodist society as an outward sign of that lifestyle.
It was also during the Christmas Conference when the copy of “The Sunday
Service of the Methodist in North America” prepared by John Wesley was
accepted, but this was never popularized as a guide to worship in some
instances. Articles of Religion, forms of administration of the Sacraments and
for the ordination were also decided upon and created.
Aiming for
uniformity in worship, on December 1, 1789, Bishop Francis Asbury called a
clergy meeting (ordained elders), to discuss the possibility of having time and
form of public worship as similar as possible through out the Methodist
congregations. This gathering attempted to establish a uniform practice of
worship, and to commence public worship on Sunday morning at 10:00 o’clock, if
not, at 11:00 o’clock. The worship shall compose of singing, prayer and reading
the Bible, sermon or reading the sermon in the absence of the preacher. The officiating person shall be appointed by
the Elder, Deacon, or Traveling Preacher assigned. The endeavor of having a
uniform public worship appears to have been unsuccessful. In 1792, “The Sunday Service of the Methodist
in North America” was dropped and the ritual became part of “The Book of
Discipline” with thorough and relevant revision.
Because of the
intense racial discrimination by the whites of the blacks, a group of Black
Methodists led by Richard Allen separated in 1816 and established the African
Methodist Episcopal Church. Another
split happened in 1821 due to the same reason and the new group called
themselves the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church. Dissatisfied by the
administration of the Pastors and Bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church, a
group of lay people separated and established the Methodist Protestant Church
in 1830. In 1845, due to the issues of slavery tolerated by the Methodist
Episcopal Church, the Methodist Episcopal Church South (MECS) was formed in
1845. From the MECS some black people separated and established another group
called The Colored Methodist Episcopal Church [ or The Christian Methodist
Episcopal Church] in 1870. In 1939, the Methodist Episcopal Church, the
Methodist Protestant Church and the Methodist Episcopal Church South
organically merged and they called themselves The Methodist Church. It was in the 23rd of April 1968
in Dallas, Texas, in a Uniting Conference, that The Methodist Church and the
Evangelical United Brethren merged and called themselves since then, The United
Methodist Church.
In
1892, the General Conference of the northern church tried to attempt again to
establish uniformity of public worship.
The fact that the Methodist both south and north shared a common
understanding and attitude in worship, it helped them to encouraged each other
in union in 1939. In 1905 they both adopted the “The Methodist Hymnal” which
have only change little since. Although there
were efforts for public worship uniformity, the major thrust of the American
Methodist movement was how to meet the demands of a particular setting and
people, a relevant, engaging, and mass-oriented public worship. The purpose of
Methodist worship and the Holy Eucharist celebrations was to save people and to
keep the people saved, an attempt to bring new life to the church, and help the
people become aware of their experience of reality and increase the level of
their commitment. Rituals and practices established by the American Methodist
movement have great influence in the ritual and practices of the Methodist
movement in the Philippines.
After
so many years of ups and downs in the journey in the sacramental life of the
Methodist Church, from the “Sunday Service of the Methodist of North America”
written by John Wesley in 1784 down through the hymnals, rituals, and book of
worship from our antecedent societies and denominations, the official worship
resources now carry the name the United Methodist Church. Out from our Anglican
liturgical heritage, our Methodist and Evangelical United Brethren traditions,
from our ethnic and cultural diversity, The United Methodist Hymnal came about
in 1989 as approved by the General Conference of the United Methodist Church in
1988. Second, The United Methodist Book of Worship came about, that speaks of
our corporate and collective worship, that strengthens our worship life and
empowers our ministry and mission. The current official Hymnal and Book of
Worship are composed of psalms, responses, and hymns suited to all seasons and
occasions celebrates by the community, the complete and brief form of the order
of worship, the order for the confirmation and reception of the church, the
order for the administration of the Holy Baptism and the Holy Eucharist.
During
the session of the General Conference of the United Methodist Church held last
May 2004 in the United States of America, the General Board of Discipleship
presented the draft on “This Holy Mystery: A United Methodist Understanding
of Holy Communion” (THM), which
discusses the theological understanding, historical tradition and celebration,
and articulates the challenge to live out the Sacrament of Communion. It was adopted by the General Conference, and
duly approved for print, copy, distribution, and use for non-profit education
by individuals, local congregations, and agencies of the United Methodist
Church. This action reflects the effort
of United Methodism to reclaim its sacramental heritage and to continue it in
accord with ecumenical movements in sacramental theology and practice. The THM
is an official interpretive statement of theology and practice in the United
Methodist Church that urges wide use and implementation. The General Conference
resolved that “the Council of Bishops and several agencies use THM as a guide
for teaching and formation of both clergy and laity in relationship to Holy
Communion (The Holy Eucharist); that the General Commission on Christian Unity
and Inter-Religious Concerns and the Council of Bishops use THM in interpreting
United Methodist understandings and practices in ecumenical dialogue; that the
“principles,” “background,” and “practices” statements in THM be commended to
the church for their interpretation and use in the services of Word and Table
in the hymnals and Book of Worship; and that THM be published in The Book of
Resolutions, and that the General Board of Discipleship provide it in study
editions with a leader’s guide.”[31]
Here
in the Philippines, some of the annual conferences are now doing workshops and
studies to popularize the THM, and have started to implement it. The Mindanao Central East District of the
Mindanao Philippines Annual Conference is among those that are now living it
out. It started with a District-wide
Seminar and Workshop on the Holy Eucharist last conference year 2005-2006
participated by Pastors, Deaconesses, and lay people involved in worship
leadership. When the participants went
back to their local churches, they implemented what they learned by holding
weekly celebrations of the Eucharist, and re-echoed what they learned by in
turn educating their constituents. In my
church assignment during my internship, we started to have weekly celebrations
in June 2005. Reorientation and
re-education about the Eucharist was integrated into the Sunday school lessons,
sermons, and Cell group discussions. The
Pioneer United Methodist Church under the administration of Rev. Ernesto Ramos
and the Little Cochran United Methodist Church under the administration of Ptr.
Primero Laforteza are still going on with their sacramental journey and
deepening their understanding on the Holy Eucharist by weekly celebration. Some
local churches celebrate twice a month, and the rest still celebrate on the
first Sunday of the month while in the process of studying about the
Eucharist.
At the
beginning of each conference year, the district, through the leadership of
District Superintendent Ernesto Ramos, conducts workshops on worship to ensure
the capacity of the pastor in leading the worship, and in order to be relevant
and rooted in the life-situations of the church and society. It was June 25-26, 2004, under the
administration of Rev. Manuel R. Rapisura, that a consultation was held that
resulted in the creation of a quadrennial vision-mission. “Inspired by the vision-mission of our Lord
Jesus Christ: ‘I come that they might have life, and that they might have it
more abundantly’ (John 10:10), the Mindanao Central East District will lead and
empower the local churches in making disciples of the Lord in all rural and urban
communities within the area of responsibility of the district.”[32]
It clarifies the vision-mission of Jesus Christ for the welfare of the people,
living out the gospel of truth, love, righteousness, justice, and peace. In the
worship life of the district, in order to have a joyful, meaningful and
liberating liturgy in the local churches, the district defined their particular
objectives: [1] to conduct study on liturgy suited to the present time and
cultural situation of the churches; [2] to conduct workshops on contextual and
relevant liturgies; [3] to have a workshop-training on learning worship songs
and hymns, hymnody, etc; [4] develop and deepen the knowledge of the meaning
and importance of worship; [5] to organize junior and children’s worship in the
local churches. A seminar in Liturgy and Worship was conducted on July 9-10,
2004.
In September
9-10, 2005, under the leadership of Rev. Abelardo N. Guerrero as newly
appointed District Superintendent, a Seminar Workshop on Holy Eucharist and Our
Social Principles on the Natural World was held at Little Cochran United
Methodist Church, Bulakanon, Makilala, Cotabato. After the input on “The Celebration of the
Holy Eucharist: Its Mandate and Theology,” the clergy and lay leaders of the
local churches present then held a workshop on conducting and celebrating the
sacrament. It was then that the leadership of the Mindanao Central East
District (MCED) urged all local churches under it to celebrate the Holy
Eucharist every Sunday. One of the components in the nurture ministries of the
MCED in their One Year Action Plan for Conference Year 2006-2007 is the
Liturgical Renewal Workshop which aims to propagate understanding by the church
workers and laity the Biblico-Theological foundations of Worship, space and movements
in worship, and to develop worship leaders. ###
References:
1.
Baker, Frank. METHODISM AND LOVE-FEAST. London: The Epworth Press, 1957.
2.
Balasuriya, Tissa. OMI. THE EUCHARIST AND HUMAN LIBERATION. New
York: Orbis Books, 1979.
3.
Bedell, Kenneth B. Worship in the Methodist Tradition. USA:
Discipleship Resources Tidings, 1976.
4.
Best, Thomas F. and Heller Dagmar
(eds.). EUCHARISTIC WORSHIP IN
5.
ECUMENICAL CONTEXT: The Lima Liturgy –
and Beyond. Switzerland: WCC Publications, 1998.
6.
__________________________________. Se We Believe, So We Pray: Towards Koinonia
in Worship. Switzerland: WCC Publications, 1995.
7.
Cameron, Richard M. METHODISM AND SOCIETY IN HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVE. Vol. 1. USA: Abingdon Press, 1961.
8.
Crossan, John Dominic. Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography. USA:
Harper Collins Publishers, Inc., 1994.
9.
Deats, Richard L. NATIONALISM AND CHRISTIANITY IN THE PHILIPPINES. Dallas: Southern
Methodist University Press, 1967.
10. Elwood,
Douglas J. and Magdamo, Patricia L. CHRIST
IN THE PHILLIPINE CONTEXT. Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 1971.
11.
Garneau, Jean-Yves. DISCOVERING THE
EUCHARIST: According to a Ritual Approach. Philippines: St. Paul, 1990.
12.
Glatzer, Nahum N. (ed.). THE PASSOVER HAGGADAH. New York:
Schocken Books, 1979.
13.
Hann, Ferdinand. The Worship of the Early Church. USA: Fortress Press, 1973.
14.
Heitzenrater, Richard P. WESLEYAN and the People Called Methodist.
USA: Abingdon Press, 1995.
15.
Hellwig, Monika K. THE EUCHARIST & THE HUNGER OF THE WORLD.
Makati City: St. Pauls Philippines, 2003.
16. Hickman,
Hoyt L. Worshipping With United
Methodist: A Guide for Pastors and Church Leaders. Nashville: Abingdon
Press, 1996.
17. Hurtado,
Larry H. At the ORIGINS of CHRISTIAN
WORSHIP: The Context and Character of
Earliest Christian Devotion. USA: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company,
1999.
18. Khoo,
Lorna Lock-Nah. Wesleyan Eucharistic
Spirituality: Its Nature, Sources and Future. Australia: Australian
Theological Forum Press, 2005.
19.
Kodell, Jerome. OSB. The Eucharist in the New Testament. Manila: St. Pauls Philippines, 1995.
20. Langford,
Thomas Anderson III (Gen. Ed.). THE
UNITED METHODIST BOOK OF WORSHIP. USA: The United Methodist Publishing
House, 2002.
21.
Marquardt, Manfred. John Wesley’s Social Ethics: Praxis and
Principles. USA: Abingdon Press, 1992.
22.
Martin, Ralph P. WORSHIP IN THE EARLY CHURCH. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans
Publishing Company, 2000.
23. Maxwell,
William D. An Outline of CHRISTIAN
WORSHIP: Its Developments and Forms. Great Britain: Oxford University
Press, 1960.
24.
Nolan, Albert. Jesus Before Christianity. Quezon City: Claretian Publications,
1985.
25. Pazmiño,
Robert W. Foundational Issues in
Christian Education: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective. USA: Baker
Books, 2003.
26. Rieger,
Joerg. and Vincent, John J. METHODIST AND
RADICAL: Rejuvenating a Tradition. USA: Kingswood Books, Abingdon Press,
2003.
27.
Tejon, Guillermo. OP. The MASS We Celebrate. Pasay City:
Paulines Publishing House, 1997.
28. Vaño,
Manolo O. Discovering the Original Jesus:
A Biography of a Revolutionary Genius as He was Actively Known to His
Contemporaries. Quezon City: New Day Publisher, 1998.
29.
Voigt, Edwin E. METHODIST WORSHIP IN THE UNIVERSAL CHURCH. USA: Graded Press, 1965.
30.
Weber, Theodore R. POLITICS IN THE ORDER OF SALVATION: Transforming Wesleyan Political
Ethics. USA: Abingdon Press, 2001.
31.
White, James F. INTRODUCTION TO CHRISTIAN WORSHIP. USA: Abingdon Press, 1980.
32.
Willimon, William H. SUNDAY DINNER: The Lord’s Supper and the Christian Life. USA: The Upper
Room, 1981.
33. _________________.
Word, Water, Wine and Bread: How Worship
Has Changed over the Years. USA: Judson Press, 1980.
34.
Willimon, William H. and Wilson,
Robert L. “Preaching and Worship in the Small Church” in Creative Leadership Series. Ed. By Lyle E. Schaller. USA: Abingdon
Press, 1980.
35.
THE
UNITED METHODIST HYMNAL. USA: The United Methodist Publishing
House, 2005.
36.
THE
UNITED METHODIST BOOK OF WORSHIP. USA: The United Methodist Publishing
House, 2002.
37.
THE
UNITED METHODIST BOOK OF DISCIPLINE. USA: The
United Methodist Publishing House, 2000.
38.
Anno, Ferdinand C. “Doing Worship in
the Context of a People’s Struggle for Life” in The Union Seminary Bulletin.
Yr. 1. Vol. 1, November 2002.
39.
_______________. “The Subversive
Pilgrim and the Liturgical Rhetoric of Struggle” in ANUMANG HIRAP, KUNG HINDI
MASIKIP AY MALUWANG: Iba’t-Ibang Anyo ng Teolohiyang Pumipiglas. Published by the
Union Theological Seminary, 2006.
40.
OFFICIAL JOURNAL of the 41st
Regular Session of the Mindanao Philippines Annual Conference- United Methodist
Church, 7th to 10th day of March 1996.
41.
OFFICIAL JOURNAL of the 42 Regular
Session of the Mindanao Philippines Annual Conference-United Methodist Church,
20th to 23rd day of March 1997.
42.
OFFICIAL JOURNAL of the Regular
Session of the Mindanao Philippines Annual Conference – United Methodist
Church, 1994.
43.
Fuentes, Vilma May (et.al.) “METHODISM
IN THE LAND OF PROMISE” in 50th Anniversary Souvenir Program of the
Mindanao Philippines Annual Conference (1955-2005) – United Methodist Church,
May 2005.
44.
Larranga, Jose Miguel, SSS. “The
Eucharist in the Theology of Liberation” in The Emmanuel. Philippine Edition,
2001.
45.
Ang
Adhikain para sa Affiliated Autonomy: Isang Praymer. Philippines:
Caucus Philippines.
46. This
Holy Mystery: A United Methodist Understanding of Holy Communion. USA: General
Board of Discipleship of the United Methodist Church, 2004.
47.
HISTORICAL ACCOUNT of the Calaoaan
United Methodist Church, Candon City. [Photocopied].
48.
HISTORICAL ACCOUNT of the Pioneer
United Methodist Church, J.P. Laurel St., Poblacion B, Mlang, North Cotabato.
[Encoded].
49.
HISTORICAL ACCOUNT of the Living Water
United Methodist Church, Katidtuan, Kabacan, North Cotabato. [Photocopied].
[1] Larry W. Hurtado, At the ORIGINS of CHRISTIAN WORSHIP: The Context
and Character of Earliest Christian Devotion, (USA
[2] Ibid.
[3] Ibid.,p.44.
[4] Ibid., p.46.
[5] Ibid.,p.49.
[6] Ibid., p.56.
[7] Ibid., p.55.
[8] William H. Willimon, WORD, Water, Wine and Bread: How Worship Has
Changed over the Years, (USA: Judson Press, 1980), pp. 33-34.
[9] Ibid.
[10] Ibid, p. 35.
[11] Guillermo Tejon, o.p., The Mass We Celebrate, (Pasay City,
Philippines: Paulines Publishing House, 1997),pp.35-36.
[12] Ibid, p.36.
[13] William H. Willimon, WORD, Water, Wine and Bread: How Worship Has
Changed over the Years, p. 37.
[14] Guillermo Tejon, Op. cit., p. 36.
[15] William H. Willimon, Sunday Dinner: The Lord’s Supper and the
Christian Life, (Nashville, Tennessee: The Upper Room, 1981), p.21.
[16] Guillermo Tejon, p. 36.
[17] Ibid.
[18] Tissa Balasuriya, o.m.i, The Eucharist and Human Liberation, (USA:
Orbis Books, 1979) p.27.
[19] Ibid.,p.37.
[20] Edwin E. Voigt, METHODIST WORSHIP IN THE CHURCH UNIVERSAL,
(Nashville, USA: Graded Press, 1965), p.46.
[21] Ibid.
[22] Richard P. Heitzenrater, WESLEY AND THE PEOPLE CALLED METHODIST,
(USA: Abingdon Press, 1995),p. 2.
[23] Kenneth B. Bedell, Worship in the Methodist Tradition, (USA:
Discipleship Resources Tidings, 1976), pp. 26-27.
[24] Ibid, pp. 27-28.
[25] Theodore R. Weber, POLITICS IN THE ORDER OF SALVATION: Transforming
Wesleyan Political Ethics, (USA
[26] Ibid, pp.413-414.
[27] Ibid.
[28] Ibid, p.63.
[29] Kenneth B. Bedell, Worship in the Methodist Tradition, p. 16.
[30] Richard M. Cameron, METHODISM AND SOCIETY IN HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVE, volume 1, (USA: Abingdon Press, 1961), p.87.
[31] Benedict Daniel, O.S.L., “This Holy Mystery: Moving from Paper to
Practice”, Sacramental Life. Volume XVI, number 4, (USA
[32] Noted from the report of Rev. Manuel R. Rapisura, District
Superintendent (2004-2005) of the Mindanao Central East District during the
regular session of the Mindanao Philippines Annual Conference held at Branscomb
UMC, SMC, Kidapawan
City
No comments:
Post a Comment